Primary Socialization Theory (PST) (Oetting &
Donnermeyer, 1998) posits that the peer, family, and
school environments interact to influence adolescent
drug and alcohol use. The present work is an
application of this theory, incorporating the
additional component of negative affect (i.e.,
depression and anxiety) as predictors of adolescent
substance use and violence across Native American,
Mexican American, and Anglo American males and
females living in rural communities. Data from over
65,000 rural adolescents indicates that the peer
group is a significant positive predictor of
substance use for all groups. Family and school
factors do have significant protective effects
against substance use, albeit indirectly moderated by
peer drug associations. Results also indicate that
substance use positively predicts violence for all
groups. There also appears to be a high degree of
similarity across cultures and gender in terms of how
these factors interact. Results from this work are
discussed in terms of implications for primary
prevention and intervention within rural settings.